Modernism began mid-19th Century and lasted through to the late 1970s. It was a sustained period of industrial, scientific and artistic innovation which greatly affected cultural texts - rationalism was a relevant theme, as was the belief in a historical metanarrative.

Postmodernism is a term that dates roughly from the 1980s to the present. It refers to the era beyond modernism - the time we are living in now, which is still under definitional debate. There are three different ways to view the concept of postmodernism:
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• a term for "after" modernism.
• a term for "anti" modernism.
• a term for "hyper" modernism.

Probably the simplest possible definition of postmodernism is literal and self-explanatory: the time period after modernism. 

After the 1980s, an increase in globalisation (cross-border work and hybridity) gave rise to what we can call post-internet culture. Technological advancements have led to experimentation with personal identity, and thus the creation of individual micronarratives - less and less are we able to place ourselves in that grand metanarrative championed by the modernist era.

Another feature of postmodernism is the rise in post-truth culture. Unlike the widespread rationalist views of the modernist era, today's society has a certain distrust for fact and expertise. Seeing truth as contested and non-absolute instead, this culture has given rise to conspiracy theories and the advocation of authenticity.

Another way to view postmodernism is as a reaction to the failures of modernism. 

In contrast to modernist rationalism and truth, postmodernism has iconoclastic values - it rejects and subverts these ideals, favouring experimentalism and anti-foundational views. We now freely question the ideological bias of known fact and history, sceptical of the modernist schemes society once followed. The concept of truth is rejected for the idea that certainty cannot be obtained, and we reject those rules modernism had previously placed upon us.

​The idea behind hyper-modernism is that postmodernism is simply an accelerated version of modernism.

In this sense, we are seeing a continuation of the modernist narrative; a belief that culture is cyclical, and never complete.

​Postmodernist features in visual culture include:

• the merging of high/low cultural forms: elitist texts existing alongside the mainstream and mass produced.
• mutations in public space: hybrid-cultural areas that don't fit into the narrative.
• 'the unstable image': the idea that images are no longer true representations - degradation, manipulation and presentation of an image that obscures its reality and meaning (see 'order of simulacra*').
• 'society of the spectacle': increased mediation - living life through a screen, with simulation as the new reality.

​Modernism: a sustained period of industrial, scientific and artistic innovation throughout mid 19th Century - late 1970s.

Postmodernism: the current era which succeeded modernism - can be defined as after, anti or hyper modernism.

Rationalism: the philosophical view that knowledge is acquired through factual reason.

Post-Internet culture: a societal movement following the expansion of the Internet.

Post-Truth culture: a societal movement challenging rationalist views.

Metanarrative: a grand, overarching interpretation of history, interconnecting points in structural form.

Micronarrative: a narrative personal to the individual, and unable to be placed within a metanarrative.

​*Order of simulacra: Jean Baudrillard's stage concept (1981):
 - stage 1: reflects base reality.
 - stage 2: masks/perverts reality.
 - stage 3: the absence of basic reality.
 - stage 4: no relation to any reality.

​Globalisation refers to the operation of organisations on an international scale. This involves different cultures worldwide developing connections and working in liaison, largely for economic purposes.

Considering the themes of globalisation, we must talk about The Global Village phenomenon - that is, the growing worldwide interconnection facilitated by technological/communicational advancements.

In the modern age, we are now able to connect with others on a global scale. This allows us to form a sort of worldwide community (or 'village) via digital platform, which has been in turn paved the way for a number of changes:
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• Cultural exchange: the mixing of cultures and creation of a global creative community, resulting in hybridised texts.

• Problem solving as a planet: the ability to communicate, share and enable plans to tackle global issues (pandemics, climate change, etc).
• Cultural imperialism: the disproportionate effect of one culture over another.
• Post-Traditional community: the economic and technological impact on community relations (transient connection, changes in spatial environment, digital integration, etc.)

Note that although globalisation has catered for huge advancements, the impacts are not all positive.

Globalisation has also made cross-border trade possible. The growth of global economics since the 1980s has facilitated changes such as:

• Global brands: the creation and promotion of worldwide brands and transient corporations.
• Breakdown of trade barriers: national borders and ideologies are now less relevant.
  
• Economical shifts: movement in the west from manufacturing to service-based industries.
  

​A global corporation is a company that operates in many countries worldwide. The growth of such corporations can be traced back to the 1980s, with marked movement from production to branding. According to Naomi Klein in her book 'No Logo', 1999, global corporations can be characterised by the following attributes:

• they are immortal: they have accumulated power and wealth, and great influential power.
• they are ephemeral: they can change operation quickly (eg. wages, tax, etc).
• they are aggressively competitive: they are driven by profit and growth.
• they are chameleonlike: they change their ideologies to suit location.

Klein also discusses the corporate brand as a company identity and logo, spread throughout advertising (including celebrity endorsement, product placement, sponsorships, etc). She notes in particular the growth of fashion franchise and high-concept advertisement since the mid-80s. However, there are hidden negatives behind the face of corporate branding:

• process concealment: the production process is hidden.
• outsourced manufacture: the exploitation of others, particularly developing countries, for cheap labour and manufacture.
• minimal labour costs: non-unionised labour and sweatshop employment.
  
• export processing zones: ​corporate enclaves and tax breaks with no benefit for local economy.
  

Activist opposition to the above is known as the anti-corporate movement. This movement has grown since the 1990s, raising awareness and promoting anti-consumerism with the use of social media and digital forums (see the 'Adbusters' for reference).

It is, effectively, the use of design as a weapon of propaganda, subversion and culture jamming.

​Anti-corporate activists use a range of creative resistance strategies such as brandalism, detournement/subversion and interventions to oppose corporate branding. They also challenge it by engaging in ethical and sustainable practice (see the 'First Things First 2000 Manifesto' ​for reference).

Mau Mau is a British graffiti artist who uses his work as a means of ethical activism. With his token fox character, he protests issues such as consumerism, corporate branding and climate change in his artwork. As well as his own personal projects, he has produced activist work for many organisations, including Greenpeace.

Mau Mau's artwork has appeared on everything from walls to shipwrecks all around the world. Below are examples of his activist street art:

The concept of gender roles in society changes over time with the evolution of culture; their definitions are specific to time and place. ​With ​gender identity and representation explored and reflected on more openly now in the media, many debates have risen:

• Gender & Power Structures (cultural patriarchy, the male/female gaze)
• Gender as an Identity Base
• Essentialism v. Structuralism (inherent or learned?)
• Gender Behaviour & Performance (socio-historic conditioning, cultural anchors, reiteration -> sedimentation -> perpetuation)
• Societal Attitude to Gender
• Representation & Cultural Ideals (societal expectations of male and female bodies)
• Gender/Consumerism Relationship

Of course, with gender being a social construct as opposed to a natural property, these debates root in society itself. In today's day and age  they are most prominent in the media, where cultural ideals and gender norms can be openly discussed and challenged.

'Gender Advertisements' is an analytical work by Erving Goffman, considering and discussing gender representation in 60s-70s adverts.

Goffman notes that this era of advertisement maintains strong running themes:

• Binary gender representation: it was very much 'masculine male' and 'feminine female' - there was no mention or consideration for trans, non-binary or genderqueer identities.​

 

• The gendered body: there were very clear cultural ideals and expectations for both male and female bodies. Where men were portrayed as active and forceful, women were seen as passive and yielding - women were branded as more emotional than men, with weaker strength but greater tactility. 

 

• Gender roles & power dynamics: men were the 'breadwinners' and women were 'housewives', often seen in formal and homely attire respectfully - this heavily reinforced the patriarchal power structure.

 

• The subordination of women: women were seen as below men - objects to surveyed, wives to serve their assertive husbands.

Though many aspects of society's views on gender are still troublesome, it is clear we have come a long way in just a few decades.

Style magazines are hotspots for gender-based debate and exploration. Their content directly reflects cultural changes towards sexuality and gender, producing a response to society's ever-changing views.

They link gender identity to consumerism by targeting specific audiences, exploiting different 'tricks' to do so. For example, it is not uncommon for a style magazine to address the reader informally and directly; inclusive terms such as "we"/"our"/"you"/"your" recognise the reader as 'part of the group', enticing them with an inclusive vibe. The use of celebrities as role models of success is also a huge tool for the promotion of both products and cultural ideals.

On one hand, you could say style magazines have a negative effect on society's gender views; that they encourage backwards thinking. They can include unrealistic role models, wrongly pressuring people to conform to a certain gender or body ideal - in this sense especially, many magazines still have a firmly heterosexual/cisgender outlook which excludes non-binary gender identities. Many would also argue that patriarchal power structures are still reinforced in style magazines.

On the other hand, you could view style magazines as engaging postmodern texts; works of humour, emotion and self-consciousness that encourage readers to relate, explore and discuss their views on gender identity. Readers can find a sense of community and comfort in this relation, and build confidence and pride in their identities. 

In the 1975 paper 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema', Mulvey presents the concept of The Male Gaze. This theory suggests that in the media, women are viewed from the perspective of a heterosexual man as passive objects of male desire.

To explore this, Mulvey uses the world of narrative cinema as an example. She notes that in films of that time period, the protagonist was almost always a cisgender, heterosexual male. Through camerawork, acting and design, he was portrayed as a powerful character - an often egotistical individual with the active means to command the stage and control the plot.

At the other end of the spectrum, women were portrayed as passive characters - objects to be displayed, viewed and owned. Female protagonists were rare, and women tended to play the roles of love interests or erotic distractions (in other words, they were virtually irrelevant to the plot without connection to the male protagonist).

Mulvey notes that the camerawork in these films is significantly different when filming the female figure. The paper points to three perspectives in filmmaking; camera perspective, character perspective and audience perspective. Unlike the filming of men, the filming of women involves heavy focus on typically-feminine aspects of the body - this emphasises the use of women in cinema as erotic leitmotifs (eg. pin-ups, strip-tease, etc).

To conclude, Mulvey's paper points out the voyeuristic, scopophilic instinct of the male gaze in narrative cinema, and the portrayal of the female figure as a passive object of male pleasure and erotic impact.

​The term subculture can be traced as far back as the 1800s. Then, they were referred to as 'deviant groups' or 'urban underclasses'. Nowadays, the term subculture largely refers to post-1945 youth groups.

Note the prefix 'sub', as in subordinate or subterranean, to signify a lower position - subcultures are groups that have split from or rebelled against a pre-existing parent culture.

Mainstream culture itself, as mentioned, can also be referred to as 'parent', 'official' or 'dominant' culture. It is the cultural normalising and promotion of popular and socially-acceptable texts ("cultural norms"), and can therefore only function via broad consensus.

Though mostly widespread in media, mainstream culture is essentially everywhere - institutions and workplaces, consumer culture, economics and bureaucracy, even authorities and the government. It is easily accessible, and easily spread (one could argue subculture must be 'sought out', whereas the mainstream is readily visible and available).

It is from the mainstream that subculture splits, forging its own path as a stream of minority. That being said, the lifespan of said stream is not guaranteed; subculture tends to follow a cyclical pattern.

Thinking of culture as a matter of consensus, subculture can be seen as a rebellion against mainstream ideas. Followers may disagree or refuse to go along with them, instead choosing to subvert, disrupt or parody. This 'rebel group' splitting from its parent culture is the birth of a subculture.

​In 1950s America, The Beats were a literary subculture; a group of writers who could be considered as subcultural 'elite' (mostly young, white males from moneyed, middle class backgrounds).

The subculture's name, as in 'beaten', signifies its estrangement from the mainstream. They were iconoclastic; challenging the dominant cultural values of the 1950s (which they referred to as "square values") including deferred gratification, planned future, the '9-5 job' and 'family unit' ideals, fatalism, materialism and consumerism.
​

​Below are some of The Beats' main themes and values:

• Countercultural: rejecting 1950s standards, materialism, and consumerism.
• Anti-military: against the Cold War.
• Anti-censorship: morally liberal attitudes towards sex, gender, relationships and drugs - the right to and promotion of experimentation.
• Spirituality: in a non-Western, non-Christian sense.
• Hedonism: believing in the importance of pleasure and self-indulgence, and the personal enlightenment it can bring - against deferred gratification.
• Autonomy: the right to govern yourself and your life, and the right to spontaneity as opposed to a planned, fatalist future.
• ​Non-conformity: rejecting cultural norms like the '9-5 job', defined 'gender roles' and the stereotypical 'family unit'.​

Eventually, vilification of the subculture (eg. the 'Beatnik' caricature - Lipton, 1959), led to mockery of The Beats. They were reframed by the mainstream as dangerous and morally suspect. Despite this, they were later to re-emerge in hipster culture.

Although the music genre rooted shortly before in 1960s America, the punk subculture of the 1970s was largely established in Britain. Nowadays some of us may only associate the term 'punk' with the music genre or the subculture itself, but official definitions include:

- "a worthless person"
- "a criminal or troublemaker"
- "a prostitute"
- "a homosexual"
- "an inexperienced young person"
- "in poor condition". 

It is interesting to keep these definitions in mind when thinking of the relationship between punk and mainstream. As another non-conforming, countercultural group against elitism and establishment, it is most certain they were met with disapproving eyes in the parent culture.

​Some of the main ideologies of punk subculture include:
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• Authenticity: amateurism as a virtue - not "selling out".
• Anti-corporate/Anti-elitism: the demystification of mainstream ideologies.
• Non-conformity: the right to self-expression and autonomy.​
• Urban/suburban decay: a rebellion against the social and economic conditions of 1970s Britain.
• Nihilism/Anarchy: nihilistic views, particularly in early punk.

The subculture voiced its views through a distinctive DIY ethic and the development of a visual lexicon. 

• Music: fast-paced and hard edge, often self-produced and distributed through independent labels (particular spotlight on 'The Sex Pistols').
• Art/Design: use of collage/photomontage, stencil lettering and Letraset, ransom note style (particular spotlight on album covers, and the influential 'punk-defining' art of Jamie Reid).
• Underground press & zines: often crudely produced and cheaply printed (xerography), but well composed.
• Fashion & punk dress code: sexualised shock imagery, cross-dressing, collage/bricolage (the safety pin as a punk symbol), and subversion of loaded cultural signs - purposefully designed to offend and provoke the mainstream.

The punk movement used detournement; a technique adapted by the situationist SI, it sought to subvert and 'ape' mainstream culture via alteration and appropriation.

As noted by Hebdige, following the rise and peak of a subculture, there comes a point when it begins to be absorbed into the mainstream. The subcultural elite loses the upper hand as it becomes common mainstream knowledge - it is either popularised and commercialised, co-opted and copied, vilified and parodied... Until possible re-emergence at a later date, the subculture is re-asserted by the mainstream.

​The International Bear Brotherhood ​is a subculture within LGBTQ+, characterised mainly by its community; gay men of a typically larger, hairier stature.

​The subculture emerged in the mid 1980s, when many homosexual men felt invalidated by the effeminate stereotype both in and outwith their community. In response to this, bear culture emerged as an identity term and affiliation for gay men who presented 'rugged masculinity'. Now recognised worldwide, it has developed a specific visual culture of its own.
​

Bear culture has a specific visual identity and dress code. Gay men who identify as bears typically present with:

• a larger stature: this could refer to height, weight, muscularity or general build.
• hirsuteness: bears almost always have facial and body hair.
• 'rugged masculinity': a key traditional aspect of bear culture challenging the effeminate stereotype of gay men.
• specific clothing: bear culture often features shirtless fashion to show off body hair and physique; other commonly-worn items include leather, studded leather, body harnesses, biker jackets, etc.

Bear culture presentation and fashion is seen and celebrated at community gatherings and events. Examples include local 'bear club' meetings, 'Bear Hug' parties, marches and festivals, Prides, and international competitions such as International Mr Bear.

The inclusivity of bear culture is hotly debated. Some bears exclude or even actively shun effeminate gay men, whereas other members of the community are accepting of all presentations. In many cases, bear culture has evolved to be inclusive of trans men and butch-presenting lesbians.

Arguably the most iconic visual of bear culture is its flag. Now recognised as the subculture's official symbol within the LGBTQ+ community, it is comprised of a bear paw silhouette atop seven strips of colour (black, grey, white, beige, yellow, red and brown - representing the fur colours of different bear species). The flag and the bear paw symbol are widely used in Bear Pride merchandise, such as t-shirts, badges and sashes.

The subculture also holds its own genre in media; the community produces a range of magazines (such as those shown below), music, and adult content.

Comics are essentially a set of graphic signs used to tell an artist's story. These signs are unique to comics - they've evolved over time, and are easily understood by most readers on a broad spectrum of literacy. Surface efficiency is more important than underlying complexity - sometimes less is more in the world of comics.

To create a comic page, an artist selects, renders and arranges codified elements (visual and lingual content, sound effects, symbolic icons, etc) to make a narrative for the reader.

To read that narrative, the viewer must make connections to decode both visual and lingual signs. They must also understand how to navigate the page. There are three levels on which a reader can approach the page:
​

• Level of Page: to appreciate the composition.
• Level of Strip: to appreciate the style, and the use of the strip as an intermediate ellipse in the narrative.
• Level of Panel: to engage in visual and textual content, present anchorage, and the transition between panels.

The multiframe is essentially the spacio-topical system of the page; the interrelation between all the frames involved. This definition was suggested by Thierry Groensteen, along with the idea of the hyperframe (the delineated space of the page).
​

Panels are sequential frames for visual content; they keep the rhythm of the comic, giving it its vital heartbeat.

​The relationship between panels is fundamental - not only for abutting panels, but to others in the multiframe. Panel coordinates provide narrative punctuation and formulaic order for the reader.

Gutters are the spaces between panels; together with the page margins, they make up the comic's negative space.

Despite its title, negative space is still 'active'. The positive (drawn) space only partially tells the story - the negative space represents an opportunity to invoke the reader's imagination, give closure, and essentially make the narrative whole.
​

​The appearance of speech and thought bubbles is an evolved code. For example, pointed bubbles indicate the text is 'spoken by', and dotted bubbles indicate it is 'thought by' - the contouring of both the bubble and its text can effectively convey emotion and volume.

It is important to note that text bubbles should not be seen as an object or hole within the picture.
​

Comics, unlike other narrative forms, often feature the past, present and future occupying the same space. Groensteen describes this in his writing about plurivectorial flow. The reader's eye traverses and rewinds across panels and pages - unwanted deviation can be countered using control strategies.

To control narrative flow and reader direction, you can utilise:
​
- key panel coordinates.
- page breaks and cliffhangers.
- the use of negative space.
- different transition types to show passage of time.
​- etc.

The transition types themselves are as follows:
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• Moment-to-Moment: small lapses in time - little closure needed.
• Action-to-Action: different actions / same scene - some closure needed.
• Subject-to-Subject: different subjects / same scene or idea - requires reader involvement.
• Scene-to-Scene: geographic location, significant movement of time and/or space - requires deductive reasoning.
• Aspect-to-Aspect: scene-setting, no apparent shift in time, showing different aspects of the same scene.
• Non-Sequitur: no logical relationship between panels.

​

​Jeff Lemire is a Canadian comic book author and artist. After originally studying at film school, deciding it didn't suit his solitary nature, Lemire switched tracks to forge a career in comics. He has a very particular style; with a dark approach to storytelling visualised in bold ink linework, he excels at incorporating a psychological horror element into much of his work.

Lemire has worked for numerous well-known publishers (including DC, Marvel and Dark Horse) and has produced a wide range of comics. However, 'Sweet Tooth' arguably remains his best-known work.
​

​'Sweet Tooth' is a post-apocalyptic work of fiction that fluently merges fantasy with horror. Set in a world ravaged by a deadly virus, the remaining human population struggles to survive; blamed for the onset of the virus, the mysterious hybrid generation are persecuted. Gus, a young deer-boy hybrid, is the key to the past and future.

A lot of Sweet Tooth fans have been introduced to the series via the recent Netflix adaptation, which garnered a huge number of viewers during the Covid-19 pandemic (ironically apt timing which probably boosted interest in the concept). Lemire's comics have sat on my bookshelf since long before the TV adaptation. Although I'm a huge fan of how Netflix has tackled the series so far, there's just a beautiful, macabre something to the comics that can't be recreated.
​

I have always been fascinated by the masterful art of graphic novelling; even at a mere glance, a comic can convey such complexity and make it feel effortless. The underlying graphic code is what allows this. Saying that, it felt odd to pick apart the whats and hows of something so subconscious; as if writing instructions for how to walk. You can find my rough scribblings for this task in the notes section.

Below, I will be focusing on these two pages in Book One of the Sweet Tooth series. This scene takes place very early in the comic, towards the beginning of the issue, with a page turn separating it.

At first glance, the reader can appreciate the scene on three different levels. At page level, we get instant effect from the composition; at strip level, we gain a greater understanding of how the scene transitions; at panel level, we can appreciate the use of style and content to emphasise storytelling and tone.

​Like any other semiotics analysis, we can observe each page in terms of denotation and connotation, for both visual and linguistic content. 
​

​The first page sports a full bleed panel, almost like a background - it takes up the entire page, and is overlaid towards the bottom by two long, smaller panels. In the larger panel, we see Gus being approached by a stag in the forest. In the smaller panels, we are shown the eyes of both subjects respectively.

The second page is comprised of two panels; one showing the stag being shot in the head (from Gus's perspective), the other showing Gus looking down at the now-dead stag (from ground perspective).
​

Now let's read into the connotations. 
​​

There are only two subjects here; Gus and the stag. They are relatively small compared to their surroundings on the first page. The size and sparsity of the full-bleed panel infer a sense of privacy, telling us the interaction is slow and suspenseful - right away, we know this scene is an important moment.

The genetic similarities between Gus and the stag are obvious, but this goes beyond simple denotation. More than "they both have antlers". This is a symbolic moment in which Gus effectively stares down his own reflection, as inferred by the eye closeups - he and the stag are two sides of one coin, both the same and different simultaneously. Gus' hybrid features emphasise that he is the link between the animal and human worlds, reinforced by their literal 'meeting' in this scene. Considering Sweet Tooth's concept of human extinction and hybrid succession, he may also represent the link between the Earth's past and future (and the key to its survival).

Another striking element of that first page is its lighting; it is stark and dramatic, creating an intense atmosphere. The light's golden hue suggests a certain holiness that, when paired with the woodland setting, may prompt us to consider the Garden of Eden. The light's source being placed behind the stag also supports a sacred theme, bearing similarity to religious imagery in which the subject is approached by a god or holy messenger. 

It is important to note the interaction too. If we look at Gus, we can see his hand is raised tentatively; his body language signals that he is wary, unsure, perhaps a little afraid. In contrast, the approaching stag's gait leads heavily with his head; he is calm, confident and purposeful. Running with the idea of a celestial encounter, the stag may be a symbol of higher power - a messenger silently giving Gus his task. Gus is also situated in the shadow cast by the stag, which could reinforce religious hierarchy and the idea that animal preceded both human and hybrid in evolution.*
​

The main effect of the second page is its contrast to the first, particularly regarding colour palette, speed and volume (yes, volume). Previously, as mentioned, the colours were very natural - dark, muted greens and browns that created a sense of nature's peace, devoid of man and weapon. The sudden introduction of vibrant blues and reds feels like being forced into blinding light, into a dangerous reality - like a deer in the headlights. You can almost feel the gravity of Gus' realisation as he is exposed to man's violence; you can almost hear the ringing in your ears from that sudden gunshot. The stark change in angle is effective in conveying the sudden drama of this moment.

Note also that the deer's expression doesn't change; it remains calm, both before and after its death. Revisiting the concept of hybrid succession, this could reinforce the idea that nature is about to give way to a new era - judging by Gus' innocent expression of shock, we can assume this new era is the right path to a peaceful Earth. The background detail of the shovel and graves here adds to the idea of 'burying the past'. 
​

There are no linguistics whatsoever on the first page. As much as words are often a key element in comics, sometimes less is more. We have already noted the sense of private, slow-moving sanctity in the first page - the lack of wording further emphasises the silence of this sacred interaction, almost imitating a churchlike atmosphere.

In addition, the lack of words on the first page greatly increases the effect of the sudden onomatopoeia on the second. 'BLAM' - the sound of the bullet piercing the skull of the stag in the silent forest, loud and sudden and startling. The placement of the text behind the head in a red, spluttering typeface adds to the shock by resembling blood spatter.

​The interrelationship between the panels in these two pages is vital in maintaining the heartbeat throughout.

The white of the stag's eyes serves as a focal point in all panels - this is what guides the reader's eye effectively through the scene - with the negative space suggesting the passage of time accordingly. The lack of gutters on the first page is our first example of this; the placement of the eye panels within the full-bleed panel emphasises that all three are taking place simultaneously, and the drawn-out interaction suggests a longer time frame. On the second page, the two panels are equal in size and separated by a slanted gutter; this is a visual representation of the split moment ​in which the stag is shot, reinforcing the rapid speed of the incident.

With regards to transition, I believe you could say a few different types are used in this scene:
​

• Subject-to-subject: the movement between the panels showing Gus' eyes and the stag's eyes in sequence.
•  Moment-to-moment: the panel-per-moment movement through the scene (Gus meets the stag; eye contact; stag is shot; stag falls to the ground).
• Action-to-action: the movement between the panels showing the stag being shot and falling to the ground.

To summarise, I believe it is clear on analysis that Lemire is going for a sacred atmosphere in this scene. There are obvious connotations of a religious epiphany, and references to the failure of man as a species - we can see that Gus is the link between the Earth's disturbed past and its new, peaceful future.
​

In this session, we focused on the semiotics of advertisement. The advertising business is highly professional, competitive and lucrative - companies spend fortunes on ads to construct and distribute their brands.

Ads themselves are particular to time and place, meaning they reflect current view (in society, politics, etc). They often reinforce cultural myths - dominant ideologies, or "cultural norms" - and attitude towards consumerism and status.

​Magazine ads in particular tend to combine both linguistic and image signs, to construct an encoded message for a target audience. We looked at the French 'Panzani' ad shown above as a case study for analysis.
​

The literal text on the labels denotes the brand name 'Panzani', and names of the pictured food items ("parmesan", "pates" and "salsa"). They are written in the French langue, as is the syntagmatic slogan "a l'Italienne de luxe" ("luxury Italian").

Thinking of the connotations, we can immediately link both the font, language and brand name to the idea of Italy. As a brand, 'Panzani' has Italian heritage and specialises in Italian cuisine - even the foodstuffs in the ad are stereotypically Italian. The mention of "luxury" in the slogan suggests the idea of rich, good quality ingredients, and a feeling of Italian authenticity.​
​

The image denotes a photograph of Italian foodstuffs in a string bag - pasta, onions, a tomato, a mushroom, sauce and parmesan. The colour scheme is strictly limited to reds, whites and greens.

The connotational value of the image really gives it its meaning here. The colour scheme is reminiscent of the Italian flag; reds, whites and greens are usually the dominant colours in a plate of authentic Italian pasta, too (effective in making the viewer hungry, prompting them to crave and buy the product). Again, as with the linguistic connotations, the ingredients are very much stereotypical of Italian cuisine - the addition of the string bag references a certain Mediterranean market culture, and the idea of a "fresh catch".

Also worth noting are the connotations of the format and placement of the photograph. The hinted countertop setting suggests the ingredients are freshly bought - you can almost imagine bringing them home and setting them on the counter, ready to make your meal. The fact that the ingredients are spilling out of the bag has connotations of abundance, suggesting that the bag contains everything needed to make the perfect authentic Italian dish. This careful arrangement is called ​studied spontaneity; it prompts the viewer to associate the ingredients with fresh produce and authenticity. Interestingly, the arrangement also seems to be an intertextual nod to Italian paintings of a certain time period.
​

I personally think this ad is an example of dual message anchorage, since the text and image seem to convey and reinforce the same message. The inferred concept of authentic Italianicity is clear, alongside the promotion of a cultural Italian stereotype.

​For this task, we were to source a magazine ad of our own and conduct a similar semiotic analysis. I chose to look at this full-page advertisement for Lindt Lindor chocolates.
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Again beginning literally, the text denotes the brand name (Lindt) and the product name (Lindor). The slogan reads "melt into a moment of bliss", followed by a brief product description and the promise "you choose the moment, we'll provide the bliss". The font is elegant and predominantly white and gold, intersected with the amplification of "bliss" in a bolder, cursive typeface.

The repetition of the word "bliss" is prominent - combined with the use of descriptive words like "smooth" and "melting", this holds connotation of luxury. Even the words "milk chocolate" reinforce this idea of the smooth, creamy texture of a luxurious, melt-in-the-mouth treat (note the use of "moment" to suggest the idea of treat as opposed to staple). The fanciful cursive of "bliss" amplifies this upper-class feeling, as does the gold colouring of the brand name Lindt (suggesting that their products are top quality).
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​In terms of denotation, the image portrays a single Lindor truffle on a red background, being filled with a stream of melted milk chocolate. We can also see the Lindt logo, a small image of the packaging and the trademark screenshot of the Lindt chocolatier at the edges of the ad.

For me, the thing that stood out first in terms of connotation was the background. Red has many connotations, but its intention here is clear. The deep, rich tone and the satin, velveteen rendering suggests a secluded, luxurious environment - the lighting is dark but warm, perhaps bringing to mind a luxurious candlelit room. Some may even connect the idea of red satin to lingerie; this cleverly and subtly infers an almost sensual feeling to the product, suggesting the "excitement" and "guilty pleasure" of this treat. The stream of melting chocolate reinforces this with a sense of slowness, and the idea of a "savoured moment".
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In my opinion, although dual message, the ad would also work as an example of image-specific anchorage. With or without the text, it effectively suggests the idea of a luxurious, velvety treat - the text merely amplifies what the image can convey alone.

Carrying on from the last lecture, we looked further into semiotic terminology. It was particularly helpful to firstly compare both words and images as signs.

As a signifier, a word does not physically resemble what it describes - it is therefore an arbitrary sign. It requires knowledge (of language, linguistic rules and cultural definitions) to decode. How words are said or written affects the reading of meaning - this is the 'plane of expression'.

As a signifier, an images does resemble what it describes - it is therefore an iconic sign. Images are usually experienced before words are (as memories are experienced visually before we reframe them in words). How an image is captured or rendered affects the reading of meaning - this is the 'plane of abstraction'.

​An important term to note is anchorage - used by Barthes, this describes the relay between words and visuals. There are different types of anchorage:

• word-specific (written or verbal): providing all or most of the information needed to decode through words.
• image-specific: providing all or most of the information needed to decode through images.
• dual message (amplification): using words and images to communicate the same message in tone or content.
• independent (convergent): words and images being used together but contributing independently, to convey a message neither could do alone.
• parallel (divergent/multimodal): words and images being presented together, but on different paths.​​

Signs are polysemous, meaning they are open to many interpretations. When using signs, consider the planes of meaning:

• denotation (primary meaning): a sign's most immediate reading - non-coded, reflects broad consensus, and requires only literal deduction.
• connotation (secondary meaning): a sign's underlying meaning - uses coded interpretation to invoke ideas and link other concepts (intertextuality).

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Rene Magritte was a Belgian surrealist artist. His paintings, like the one above, were known for being dreamlike and thought-provoking. Arguably his most famous work, the image shown is the perfect exercise for a semiotic analysis.
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We have to consider both the written and image messages here, and the primary and secondary meanings of both.

In terms of the image message, take the literal observations first. We can clearly see a smoking pipe - it has a gold band, and it is floating. The image seems to be an oil painting, and is rendered realistically. In terms of the text message, we can see the words "ceci n'est pas une pipe" in handwritten script - this translates to "this is not a pipe" in the French langue. These are our denotations.

​Taking the image on a secondary plane of meaning, we start to make connections based on our experience and knowledge of reference. The smoking pipe relates to the Victorian era - its gold band suggests it is well made, perhaps middle or upper class. We also know that in society, especially in Victorian culture, this kind of pipe was seen as a symbol of masculinity. The fact that the pipe is floating gives a sense of surrealism, bringing to mind 1920s surrealist paintings. The text reinforces this - the statement of "this is not a pipe" seems so bold and contradictory that it invokes skepticism in the viewer. We get a suspicious, dreamlike sense of "things are not what they seem". These are our connotations.

Both the image and text play off each other to encourage response; both are required together to convey the intended message, making this an example of convergent anchorage. In my view, the main anchored theme of this work of art is the surrealism - both the image and the text suggest a certain level of illusion, or trickery. When you think of the title, 'The Treachery of Images', you can begin to piece together what Magritte was going for.

At the end of the day, it isn't a pipe. It is a painting ​of a pipe.

​As touched on in Y1, Semiotics is a critical methodology focusing on 'signs', and providing a framework for decoding them.

​A sign is anything capable of conveying meaning (eg. words, images, gestures, clothing, etc). Signs can be grouped together to form 'codes', to convey encoded messages (eg. body language, alphabets, dress code, etc).

​​Modern semiotics (as noted by Jonathan Bignell in 'Media Semiotics', 2002), owes itself to the work of two semioticians; Charles Peirce (1839-1914), and Ferdinand de Saussure (1859-1913). Both were linguists with a synchronic approach to language. Their ideas were relatively similar, but their stances were succinctly different; Peirce was an essentialist, whilst Saussure favoured a structuralist view.*

*Essentialism suggests our external environment influences us - that we are born a "blank slate" which is then imprinted on by our experience of reality.
 Structuralism suggests we have an underlying, inherent nature that shapes us even before we are born - that we are not moulded by our reality.

As a structuralist, Saussure proposed that language is ideological - relating to political and cultural ideas. He also viewed lingual communication as an 'exchange of minds', requiring mutual cooperation (reference and knowledge of reference) to work.

An entire language system (langue) is made up of words (signs, which are symbolic and arbitrary). This concept, that each sign is in fact dyadic, is the basis for Saussure's equation:
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A syntagm would then be a complete, ordered sequence of signs (ie. a sentence). A paradigm  is a point of substitution in a sentence which allows for an exchange of a similar sign without changing the overall structure. Noting these two elements is essential in explaining the meaning of a parole.

Another semiotician directly influenced by Saussure was Roland Barthes (1915-1980). Notably, Barthes' work built on Saussure's ideas and focused on their link to cultural media, coining the term myth (the bringing-together of a sign and its connotations).

As Barthes mentioned in 'Mythologies', 1957, myths in mainstream media and culture may:
- reflect dominant ways of thinking ("cultural norms").
- be structured (to communicate messages or propagate stereotype).
- be ideological (politically/socially motivated).

An example in Bignell's text I found quite useful was that of the Rolls-Royce. The word, or linguistic sign, denotes a make of car. But beyond that, considering the connotations we've derived from our experience of reality, it becomes a connote or "symbol" of luxury and wealth.

In lecture, we looked at wrestling and the wrestler/audience dynamic as another example of Barthes' mythology concept.

Exaggerated body language and excessive gestures are used in wrestling to emphasise meaningful discourse. These gestures can be seen as individual signs, used together to create a semiotic code - when repeated and reinforced, they can be easily decoded by the audience.
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Therefore, the myth here is that wrestling presents the illusion of passion. It has all the context of sport, but is actually a performance - fans derive pleasure from the illusion of dealt justice.

From this case study, we can separate the whole process into 3 parts:
- PRESENTATION: the live event.
- REPRESENTATION: mediation (editing, direction, relay).
- RE-REPRESENTATION: reframing (highlighting, biased opinions).